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Evolution of implementation technologies Logic gates (1950s-60s) Regular structures for two-level logic (1960s-70s) muxes and decoders, PLAs Programmable sum-of-products arrays (1970s-80s) PLDs, complex PLDs Programmable gate arrays (1980s-90s) densities high enough to permit entirely new class of application, e.g., prototyping, emulation, acceleration

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Gate Array Technology (IBM - 1970s) Simple logic gates combine transistors to implement combinational and sequential logic Interconnect wires to connect inputs and outputs to logic blocks I/O blocks special blocks at periphery for external connections Add wires to make connections done when chip is fabbed “mask-programmable” construct any circuit

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Field-Programmable Gate Arrays Logic blocks to implement combinational and sequential logic Interconnect wires to connect inputs and outputs to logic blocks I/O blocks special logic blocks at periphery of device for external connections Key questions: how to make logic blocks programmable? how to connect the wires? after the chip has been fabbed

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Enabling Technology Cheap/fast fuse connections small area (can fit lots of them) low resistance wires (fast even if in multiple segments) very high resistance when not connected small capacitance (wires can be longer) Pass transistors (switches) used to connect wires bi-directional Multiplexors used to connect one of a set of possible sources to input can be used to implement logic functions

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Programming Technologies Fuse and anti-fuse fuse makes or breaks link between two wires typical connections are 50-300 ohm one-time programmable Flash High density Process issues RAM-based memory bit controls a switch that connects/disconnects two wires typical connections are .5K-1K ohm can be programmed and re-programmed easily (tested at factory)

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Tradeoffs in FPGAs Logic block - how are functions implemented: fixed functions (manipulate inputs) or programmable? support complex functions, need fewer blocks, but they are bigger so less of them on chip support simple functions, need more blocks, but they are smaller so more of them on chip Interconnect how are logic blocks arranged? how many wires will be needed between them? are wires evenly distributed across chip? programmability slows wires down – are some wires specialized to long distances? how many inputs/outputs must be routed to/from each logic block? what utilization are we willing to accept? 50%? 20%? 90%?

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Xilinx Programmable Gate Arrays CLB - Configurable Logic Block 5-input, 1 output function or 2 4-input, 1 output functions optional register on outputs Built-in fast carry logic Can be used as memory Three types of routing direct general-purpose long lines of various lengths RAM-programmable can be reconfigured

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The Virtex CLB

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Details of One Virtex Slice

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Implements any Two 4-input Functions

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Implements any 5-input Function

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Implement Some Larger Functions

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Two Slices: Any 6-input Function

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Two Slices: Implement some larger functions

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Fast Carry Chain: Add two bits per slice

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Lookup Tables used as memory (16 x 2) [ Distributed Memory ]

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Lookup Tables used as memory (32 x 1)

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Block RAM

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Virtex Routing

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Virtex Routing

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Non-Local Routing Hex wires Extend 6 CLBs in one direction Connections at 3 and 6 CLBs “Express busses” Take advantage of many metal layers Long wires Extend the length/height of the chip Global signals e.g. clk, reset Tri-state busses Extend across the chip Use for datapath bit-slice

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Using the DLL to De-Skew the Clock

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Virtex IOB

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Computer-aided Design Can't design FPGAs by hand way too much logic to manage, hard to make changes Hardware description languages specify functionality of logic at a high level Validation - high-level simulation to catch specification errors verify pin-outs and connections to other system components low-level to verify mapping and check performance Logic synthesis process of compiling HDL program into logic gates and flip-flops Technology mapping map the logic onto elements available in the implementation technology (LUTs for Xilinx FPGAs)

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CAD Tool Path (cont’d) Placement and routing assign logic blocks to functions make wiring connections Timing analysis - verify paths determine delays as routed look at critical paths and ways to improve Partitioning and constraining if design does not fit or is unroutable as placed split into multiple chips if design it too slow prioritize critical paths, fix placement of cells, etc. few tools to help with these tasks exist today Generate programming files - bits to be loaded into chip for configuration

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Xilinx CAD Tools Verilog (or VHDL) use to specify logic at a high-level combine with schematics, library components Synplicity compiles Verilog to logic maps logic to the FPGA cells optimizes logic Xilinx APR - automatic place and route (simulated annealing) provides controllability through constraints handles global signals Xilinx Xdelay - measure delay properties of mapping and aid in iteration Xilinx XACT - design editor to view final mapping results

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Applications of FPGAs Implementation of random logic easier changes at system-level (one device is modified) can eliminate need for full-custom chips Prototyping ensemble of gate arrays used to emulate a circuit to be manufactured get more/better/faster debugging done than possible with simulation Reconfigurable hardware one hardware block used to implement more than one function functions must be mutually-exclusive in time can greatly reduce cost while enhancing flexibility RAM-based only option Special-purpose computation engines hardware dedicated to solving one problem (or class of problems) accelerators attached to general-purpose computers