🗊Презентация Unemployment rate

Let’s review our voyage to date: We have analyzed: Measuring economic activity Aggregate production functions and distribution Classical AS and AD (flexible w and p) Financial macro (including money) Open-economy macro We now move on to Business cycles, Keynesian economics, and the IS-LM model

What picture do you have in mind when you think of business cycles? What picture do you have in mind when you think of business cycles? “Note that the pattern of cycles is irregular. No two business cycles are quite the same. No exact formula, such as might apply to the revolutions of the planets or of a pendulum, can be used to predict the duration and timing of business cycles. Rather, in their irregularities, business cycles more closely resemble the fluctuations of the weather.” (Paul Samuelson)

Understanding business cycles Major elements of cycles short-period (1-3 yr) erratic fluctuations in output pro-cyclical movements of employment, profits, prices counter-cyclical movements in unemployment appearance of “involuntary” unemployment in recessions Historical trends lower volatility of output, inflation over time (until 2008) movement from stable prices to rising prices since WW II

So what’s the big problem for economics? So what’s the big problem for economics? Many economists worry that there are no firm “microeconomic foundations” for Keynesian business cycle theory. What should we do? - throw out the theory? - live with this inadequacy?

Major approaches to business cycles Classical: market clearing: supply-side cycles with vertical AS curve: Real business cycles: major active classical species today Keynesian and offshoots: non-market clearing with non-vertical AS Essential to have non-classical AS Fixed or sticky p and w AD shifts affect output and employment Underlying theory incompletely understook – active area of research Basic models in Keynesian approach “Keynesian cross” (Econ 116) AS-AD (Econ 116) IS-LM (Econ 122) Mankiw’s dynamic model (later) Open-economy in short run: Mundell-Fleming (later in course)

IS-LM model The major tool for showing the impact of monetary and fiscal polices, along with the effect of various shocks, in a short-run Keynesian situation. Key assumptions Fixed prices (P=1) Unemployed resources (Y < potential Y = Mankiw’s natural Y) Closed economy (not essential and will be considered later)

The Founder of Macroeconomics

Keynes on Why macroeconomics is difficult or Why the models are so confusing! Professor Planck, of Berlin, the famous originator of the Quantum Theory, once remarked to me that in early life he had thought of studying economics, but had found it too difficult! Professor Planck could easily master the whole corpus of mathematical economics in a few days. But the amalgam of logic and intuition and the wide knowledge of facts, most of which are not precise, which is required for economic interpretation in its highest form is, quite truly, overwhelmingly difficult. (“Biography of Marshall,” Economic Journal, 1924)

Where are we? We are now attempting to understand the basic features of business cycles. Aggregate supply (AS) in this model is real simple: a horizontal AS curve with p=1. AD relies on the IS-LM model, which is a very simple two-market model of the determinants of AD. The two markets are - goods (IS) - financial (LM)

IS curve (expenditures) Basic idea: describes equilibrium in goods market Finds Y where planned I = planned S or planned expenditure = planned output Basic set of equations: Y = C + I + G C = a + b(Y-T) T = T0 + τ Y [note assume income tax, τ = marginal tax rate] I = I0 –dr [note i = r because fixed P] G = G0

which gives the IS curve: which gives the IS curve: Y = a - bT0 + G0 + I0 - dr 1 - b(1- τ) Y = μ [A0 - dr] where A0 = autonomous spending = a - bT0 + G0 + I0 μ = multiplier = 1/[(1 - b(1- τ)] or in terms of solving for the interest rate: r = (A0 - Y/μ ) / d which we graph as the IS curve.

LM curve (financial markets) The LM curve represents equilibrium in financial markets, or where the supply and demand for money are equilibrated. Ms determined by the central bank Ms = M0 Standard interest-elastic demand for money:* Md = L(i, Y) = kY- hi Equilibrium in the money market is Md = Ms This leads to LM curve: i = ( kY - M0 )/h Not the best way to understand financial markets; will consider alternative approach later. * Note that interest rate is nominal rate here to reflect the difference between the interest rate on bonds and that on money.

Summary of IS-LM Y ≡ C + I + G C = a + b(Y-T) T = T0 + τY I = I0 – dr G = G0 Ms = M0 Md = L(i, Y) = kY- hi = kY- hr [r = i because zero inflation] All this yields hμ dμ Y* = ―――――― A0 + ――――― M0 dμk + h dμk + h where A0 = autonomous spending = a - bT0 + G0 + I0 μ = expenditure multiplier at constant r = 1/[(1 - b(1- τ)]

Overall Macroeconomic Equilibrium We now are looking for equilibrium of both markets. That is, when both goods market and money market are in equilibrium. Closed economy and zero inflation (so i=r) This is the solution or intersection of IS and LM. hμ dμ Y* = ―――――― A0 + ――――― M0 dμk + h dμk + h Impact of fiscal and monetary policy function of the different parameters. Easiest to understand using the IS-LM diagram.

SOME BASICS OF THE IS-LM MODEL Have two major kinds of shocks in business cycles: IS: investment, consumption, foreign trade, … LM: financial markets, monetary policy, exchange rates,… Because of monetary reaction, expenditure multiplier is almost surely less than standard Keynesian multiplier due to crowding out. Proof: IS-LM multiplier = μ/[dμk/h + 1] < μ = simplest multiplier Can usually diagnose shock by the relative movements of output and interest rates (compare Vietnam War and 1979-82 on next slide)

Now several interesting cases Case 1. A change in monetary policy Note: by a monetary policy, we here mean a change in the money supply (such as an open market operation), leading to a shift in the LM curve.

More on financial issues… Case 1A. A monetary crisis that increases risk premiums - This important case will be covered next time when we do the Great Depression (and today’s Great Recession).

Case 2. What are the effects of fiscal policy? Case 2. What are the effects of fiscal policy? A fiscal policy shift is change in purchases (G) or in taxes (T), holding LM curve constant. See Figure.

Case 2b. The liquidity trap. Today, this is taken to be where nominal interest rate is zero. The US in the mid-1930s Japan over last decade US in 2009-2010

Japan short-term interest rates, 1994-2006

Heavy hitters in the Obama administration

Can you see why macroeconomists emphasize the importance of fiscal policy in the current environment? Can you see why macroeconomists emphasize the importance of fiscal policy in the current environment? “Our policy approach started with a major commitment to fiscal stimulus. Economists in recent years have become skeptical about discretionary fiscal policy and have regarded monetary policy as a better tool for short-term stabilization. Our judgment, however, was that in a liquidity trap-type scenario of zero interest rates, a dysfunctional financial system, and expectations of protracted contraction, the results of monetary policy were highly uncertain whereas fiscal policy was likely to be potent.” Lawrence Summers, July 19, 2009

Case 3. Monetarism The monetarist regime: "Only money matters for output determination.“ (Milton Friedman). We can go back to quantity theory of money and prices: PY = VM In monetarism view, velocity is constant . This would lead to a vertical LM curve: Md = kY – 0i Hence, equilibrating supply and demand for M yields: Y =Ms/k

Important historical cases Case 4. Changing the fiscal-monetary mix to stimulate or depress investment A depressing example of tight money and loose fiscal New Fed chairman Volcker moved to tighten money and wring inflation out of economy (1979 on) New President Reagan launched supply-side tax policies, military buildup, leading to high deficits (1981 on) How did this affect fiscal-monetary mix

Important historical cases Pro-growth policies The opposite would be to tighten fiscal policies and loosen monetary policies. Make sure you understand how this would increase investment and increase the growth in potential output.

Summary on IS-LM Model This is the workhorse model for analyzing short-run impacts of monetary and fiscal policy Key assumptions: - Fixed or rigid prices - Unemployed resources Now on to analysis of Great Depression in IS-LM framework.