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CLASS NOTE A A1. Capital Market History and Risk & Return Returns The Historical Record Average Returns: The First Lesson The Variability of Returns: The Second Lesson Capital Market Efficiency

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A2. Capital Market History and Risk & Return (continued) Expected Returns and Variances Portfolios Announcements, Surprises, and Expected Returns Risk: Systematic and Unsystematic Diversification and Portfolio Risk Systematic Risk and Beta The Security Market Line The SML and the Cost of Capital: A Preview

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A3. Risk, Return, and Financial Markets “. . . Wall Street shapes Main Street. Financial markets transform factories, department stores, banking assets, film companies, machinery, soft-drink bottlers, and power lines from parts of the production process . . . into something easily convertible into money. Financial markets . . . not only make a hard asset liquid, they price that asset so as to promote it most productive use.” Peter Bernstein, in his book, Capital Ideas

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A4. Percentage Returns

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A5. Percentage Returns (concluded)

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A6. A $1 Investment in Different Types of Portfolios: 1926-1998

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A7. Year-to-Year Total Returns on Large Company Common Stocks: 1926-1998

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A8. Year-to-Year Total Returns on Small Company Common Stocks: 1926-1998

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A9. Year-to-Year Total Returns on Bonds and Bills: 1926-1998

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A10. Year-to-Year Total Returns on Bonds and Bills: 1926-1998 (concluded)

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A11. Year-to-Year Inflation: 1926-1998

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A12. Historical Dividend Yield on Common Stocks

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A13. S&P 500 Risk Premiums: 1926-1998

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A14. Small Stock Risk Premiums: 1926-1998

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A15. Using Capital Market History Now let’s use our knowledge of capital market history to make some financial decisions. Consider these questions: Suppose the current T-bill rate is 5%. An investment has “average” risk relative to a typical share of stock. It offers a 10% return. Is this a good investment? Suppose an investment is similar in risk to buying small company equities. If the T-bill rate is 5%, what return would you demand?

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A16. Using Capital Market History (continued) Risk premiums: First, we calculate risk premiums. The risk premium is the difference between a risky investment’s return and that of a riskless asset. Based on historical data: Investment Average Standard Risk return deviation premium Common stocks 13.2% 20.3% ____% Small stocks 17.4% 33.8% ____% LT Corporates 6.1% 8.6% ____% Long-term 5.7% 9.2% ____% Treasury bonds Treasury bills 3.8% 3.2% ____%

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A17. Using Capital Market History (continued) Risk premiums: First, we calculate risk premiums. The risk premium is the difference between a risky investment’s return and that of a riskless asset. Based on historical data: Investment Average Standard Risk return deviation premium Common stocks 13.2% 20.3% 9.4% Small stocks 17.4% 33.8% 13.6% LT Corporates 6.1% 8.6% 2.3% Long-term 5.7% 9.2% 1.9% Treasury bonds Treasury bills 3.8% 3.2% 0%

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A18. Using Capital Market History (concluded) Let’s return to our earlier questions. Suppose the current T-bill rate is 5%. An investment has “average” risk relative to a typical share of stock. It offers a 10% return. Is this a good investment? No - the average risk premium is 9.4%; the risk premium of the stock above is only (10%-5%) = 5%. Suppose an investment is similar in risk to buying small company equities. If the T-bill rate is 5%, what return would you demand? Since the risk premium has been 13.6%, we would demand 18.6%.

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A19. Average Annual Returns and Risk Premiums: 1926-1998 Investment Average Return Risk Premium Large-company stocks 13.2% 9.4% Small-company stocks 17.4 13.6 Long-term corporate bonds 6.1 2.3 Long-term government bonds 5.7 1.9 U.S. Treasury bills 3.8 0.0

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A20. Frequency Distribution of Returns on Common Stocks, 1926-1998

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A21. Historical Returns, Standard Deviations, and Frequency Distributions: 1926-1998

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A22. The Normal Distribution

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A23. Two Views on Market Efficiency “ . . . in price movements . . . the sum of every scrap of knowledge available to Wall Street is reflected as far as the clearest vision in Wall Street can see.” Charles Dow, founder of Dow-Jones, Inc. and first editor of The Wall Street Journal (1903) “In an efficient market, prices ‘fully reflect’ available information.” Professor Eugene Fama, financial economist (1976)

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A24. Stock Price Reaction to New Information in Efficient and Inefficient Markets

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A25. A Quick Quiz Here are three questions that should be easy to answer (if you’ve been paying attention, that is). 1. How are average annual returns measured? 2. How is volatility measured?

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A26. Chapter 12 Quick Quiz (continued) 1. How are average annual returns measured? Annual returns are often measured as arithmetic averages. An arithmetic average is found by summing the annual returns and dividing by the number of returns. It is most appropriate when you want to know the mean of the distribution of outcomes.

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A27. Chapter 12 Quick Quiz (continued) 2. How is volatility measured? Given a normal distribution, volatility is measured by the “spread” of the distribution, as indicated by its variance or standard deviation. When using historical data, variance is equal to: 1 [(R1 - R)2 + . . . [(RT - R)2] T - 1 And, of course, the standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

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A28. Chapter 12 Quick Quiz (concluded)

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A29. A Few Examples Suppose a stock had an initial price of $58 per share, paid a dividend of $1.25 per share during the year, and had an ending price of $45. Compute the percentage total return. The percentage total return (R) = [$1.25 + ($45 - 58)]/$58 = - 20.26% The dividend yield = $1.25/$58 = 2.16% The capital gains yield = ($45 - 58)/$58 = -22.41%

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A30. A Few Examples (continued) Suppose a stock had an initial price of $58 per share, paid a dividend of $1.25 per share during the year, and had an ending price of $75. Compute the percentage total return. The percentage total return (R) = [$1.25 + ($75 - 58)]/$58 = 31.47% The dividend yield = $1.25/$58 = 2.16% The capital gains yield = ($75 - 58)/$58 = 29.31%

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A31. A Few Examples (continued) Using the following returns, calculate the average returns, the variances, and the standard deviations for stocks X and Y. Returns Year X Y 1 18% 28% 2 11 - 7 3 - 9 - 20 4 13 33 5 7 16

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A32. A Few Examples (continued) Mean return on X = (.18 + .11 - .09 + .13 + .07)/5 = _____. Mean return on Y = (.28 - .07 - .20 + .33 + .16)/5 = _____.

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A33. A Few Examples (concluded) Mean return on X = (.18 + .11 - .09 + .13 + .07)/5 = .08. Mean return on Y = (.28 - .07 - .20 + .33 + .16)/5 = .10.

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A34. Expected Return and Variance: Basic Ideas The quantification of risk and return is a crucial aspect of modern finance. It is not possible to make “good” (i.e., value-maximizing) financial decisions unless one understands the relationship between risk and return. Rational investors like returns and dislike risk. Consider the following proxies for return and risk: Expected return - weighted average of the distribution of possible returns in the future. Variance of returns - a measure of the dispersion of the distribution of possible returns in the future. How do we calculate these measures? Stay tuned.

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A35. Example: Calculating the Expected Return pi Ri Probability Return in State of Economy of state i state i +1% change in GNP .25 -5% +2% change in GNP .50 15% +3% change in GNP .25 35%

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A36. Example: Calculating the Expected Return (concluded) i (pi  Ri) i = 1 -1.25% i = 2 7.50% i = 3 8.75% Expected return = (-1.25 + 7.50 + 8.75) = 15%

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A37. Calculation of Expected Return Stock L Stock U (3) (5) (2) Rate of Rate of (1) Probability Return (4) Return (6) State of of State of if State Product if State Product Economy Economy Occurs (2)  (3) Occurs (2)  (5) Recession .80 -.20 -.16 .30 .24 Boom .20 .70 .14 .10 .02 E(RL) = -2% E(RU) = 26%

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A38. Example: Calculating the Variance pi ri Probability Return in State of Economy of state i state i +1% change in GNP .25 -5% +2% change in GNP .50 15% +3% change in GNP .25 35% E(R) = R = 15% = .15

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A39. Calculating the Variance (concluded) i (Ri - R)2 pi  (Ri - R)2 i=1 .04 .01 i=2 0 0 i=3 .04 .01 Var(R) = .02 What is the standard deviation? The standard deviation = (.02)1/2 = .1414 .

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A40. Example: Expected Returns and Variances State of the Probability Return on Return on economy of state asset A asset B Boom 0.40 30% -5% Bust 0.60 -10% 25% 1.00 A. Expected returns E(RA) = 0.40  (.30) + 0.60  (-.10) = .06 = 6% E(RB) = 0.40  (-.05) + 0.60  (.25) = .13 = 13%

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A41. Example: Expected Returns and Variances (concluded) B. Variances Var(RA) = 0.40  (.30 - .06)2 + 0.60  (-.10 - .06)2 = .0384 Var(RB) = 0.40  (-.05 - .13)2 + 0.60  (.25 - .13)2 = .0216 C. Standard deviations SD(RA) = (.0384)1/2 = .196 = 19.6% SD(RB) = (.0216)1/2 = .147 = 14.7%

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A42. Example: Portfolio Expected Returns and Variances Portfolio weights: put 50% in Asset A and 50% in Asset B: State of the Probability Return Return Return on economy of state on A on B portfolio Boom 0.40 30% -5% 12.5% Bust 0.60 -10% 25% 7.5% 1.00

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A43. Example: Portfolio Expected Returns and Variances (continued) A. E(RP) = 0.40  (.125) + 0.60  (.075) = .095 = 9.5% B. Var(RP) = 0.40  (.125 - .095)2 + 0.60  (.075 - .095)2 = .0006 C. SD(RP) = (.0006)1/2 = .0245 = 2.45% Note: E(RP) = .50  E(RA) + .50  E(RB) = 9.5% BUT: Var (RP)  .50  Var(RA) + .50  Var(RB)

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A44. Example: Portfolio Expected Returns and Variances (concluded) New portfolio weights: put 3/7 in A and 4/7 in B: State of the Probability Return Return Return on economy of state on A on B portfolio Boom 0.40 30% -5% 10% Bust 0.60 -10% 25% 10% 1.00

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A45. The Effect of Diversification on Portfolio Variance

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A46. Announcements, Surprises, and Expected Returns Key issues: What are the components of the total return? What are the different types of risk? Expected and Unexpected Returns Total return = Expected return + Unexpected return R = E(R) + U Announcements and News Announcement = Expected part + Surprise

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A47. Risk: Systematic and Unsystematic Systematic and Unsystematic Risk Types of surprises 1. Systematic or “market” risks 2. Unsystematic/unique/asset-specific risks Systematic and unsystematic components of return Total return = Expected return + Unexpected return R = E(R) + U = E(R) + systematic portion + unsystematic portion

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A48. Peter Bernstein on Risk and Diversification “Big risks are scary when you cannot diversify them, especially when they are expensive to unload; even the wealthiest families hesitate before deciding which house to buy. Big risks are not scary to investors who can diversify them; big risks are interesting. No single loss will make anyone go broke . . . by making diversification easy and inexpensive, financial markets enhance the level of risk-taking in society.” Peter Bernstein, in his book, Capital Ideas

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A49. Standard Deviations of Annual Portfolio Returns ( 3) (2) Ratio of Portfolio (1) Average Standard Standard Deviation to Number of Stocks Deviation of Annual Standard Deviation in Portfolio Portfolio Returns of a Single Stock 1 49.24% 1.00 10 23.93 0.49 50 20.20 0.41 100 19.69 0.40 300 19.34 0.39 500 19.27 0.39 1,000 19.21 0.39 These figures are from Table 1 in Meir Statman, “How Many Stocks Make a Diversified Portfolio?” Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 22 (September 1987), pp. 353–64. They were derived from E. J. Elton and M. J. Gruber, “Risk Reduction and Portfolio Size: An Analytic Solution,” Journal of Business 50 (October 1977), pp. 415–37.

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A50. Portfolio Diversification

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A51. Beta Coefficients for Selected Companies Beta Company Coefficient American Electric Power .65 Exxon .80 IBM .95 Wal-Mart 1.15 General Motors 1.05 Harley-Davidson 1.20 Papa Johns 1.45 America Online 1.65

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A52. Example: Portfolio Beta Calculations Amount Portfolio Stock Invested Weights Beta (1) (2) (3) (4) (3)  (4) Haskell Mfg. $ 6,000 50% 0.90 0.450 Cleaver, Inc. 4,000 33% 1.10 0.367 Rutherford Co. 2,000 17% 1.30 0.217 Portfolio $12,000 100% 1.034

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A53. Example: Portfolio Expected Returns and Betas Assume you wish to hold a portfolio consisting of asset A and a riskless asset. Given the following information, calculate portfolio expected returns and portfolio betas, letting the proportion of funds invested in asset A range from 0 to 125%. Asset A has a beta of 1.2 and an expected return of 18%. The risk-free rate is 7%. Asset A weights: 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%, and 125%.

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A54. Example: Portfolio Expected Returns and Betas (concluded) Proportion Proportion Portfolio Invested in Invested in Expected Portfolio Asset A (%) Risk-free Asset (%) Return (%) Beta 0 100 7.00 0.00 25 75 9.75 0.30 50 50 12.50 0.60 75 25 15.25 0.90 100 0 18.00 1.20 125 -25 20.75 1.50

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A55. Return, Risk, and Equilibrium Key issues: What is the relationship between risk and return? What does security market equilibrium look like? The fundamental conclusion is that the ratio of the risk premium to beta is the same for every asset. In other words, the reward-to-risk ratio is constant and equal to E(Ri ) - Rf Reward/risk ratio = i

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A56. Return, Risk, and Equilibrium (concluded) Example: Asset A has an expected return of 12% and a beta of 1.40. Asset B has an expected return of 8% and a beta of 0.80. Are these assets valued correctly relative to each other if the risk-free rate is 5%? a. For A, (.12 - .05)/1.40 = ________ b. For B, (.08 - .05)/0.80 = ________ What would the risk-free rate have to be for these assets to be correctly valued? (.12 - Rf)/1.40 = (.08 - Rf)/0.80 Rf = ________

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A57. Return, Risk, and Equilibrium (concluded) Example: Asset A has an expected return of 12% and a beta of 1.40. Asset B has an expected return of 8% and a beta of 0.80. Are these assets valued correctly relative to each other if the risk-free rate is 5%? a. For A, (.12 - .05)/1.40 = .05 b. For B, (.08 - .05)/0.80 = .0375 What would the risk-free rate have to be for these assets to be correctly valued? (.12 - Rf)/1.40 = (.08 - Rf)/0.80 Rf = .02666

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A58. The Capital Asset Pricing Model The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) - an equilibrium model of the relationship between risk and return. What determines an asset’s expected return? The risk-free rate - the pure time value of money The market risk premium - the reward for bearing systematic risk The beta coefficient - a measure of the amount of systematic risk present in a particular asset The CAPM: E(Ri ) = Rf + [E(RM ) - Rf ]  i

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A59. The Security Market Line (SML)

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A60. Summary of Risk and Return I. Total risk - the variance (or the standard deviation) of an asset’s return. II. Total return - the expected return + the unexpected return. III. Systematic and unsystematic risks Systematic risks are unanticipated events that affect almost all assets to some degree because the effects are economywide. Unsystematic risks are unanticipated events that affect single assets or small groups of assets. Also called unique or asset-specific risks. IV. The effect of diversification - the elimination of unsystematic risk via the combination of assets into a portfolio. V. The systematic risk principle and beta - the reward for bearing risk depends only on its level of systematic risk. VI. The reward-to-risk ratio - the ratio of an asset’s risk premium to its beta. VII. The capital asset pricing model - E(Ri) = Rf + [E(RM) - Rf] i.

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A61. Another Quick Quiz 1. Assume: the historic market risk premium has been about 8.5%. The risk-free rate is currently 5%. GTX Corp. has a beta of .85. What return should you expect from an investment in GTX? E(RGTX) = 5% + _______  .85% = 12.225% 2. What is the effect of diversification? 3. The ______ is the equation for the SML; the slope of the SML = ______ .

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A62. Another Quick Quiz (continued) 1. Assume: the historic market risk premium has been about 8.5%. The risk-free rate is currently 5%. GTX Corp. has a beta of .85. What return should you expect from an investment in GTX? E(RGTX) = 5% + 8.5  .85 = 12.225% 2. What is the effect of diversification? Diversification reduces unsystematic risk. 3. The CAPM is the equation for the SML; the slope of the SML = E(RM ) - Rf .

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A63. An Example Consider the following information: State of Prob. of State Stock A Stock B Stock C Economy of Economy Return Return Return Boom 0.35 0.14 0.15 0.33 Bust 0.65 0.12 0.03 -0.06 What is the expected return on an equally weighted portfolio of these three stocks? What is the variance of a portfolio invested 15 percent each in A and B, and 70 percent in C?

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A64. Solution to the Example Expected returns on an equal-weighted portfolio a. Boom E[Rp] = (.14 + .15 + .33)/3 = .2067 Bust: E[Rp] = (.12 + .03 - .06)/3 = .0300 so the overall portfolio expected return must be E[Rp] = .35(.2067) + .65(.0300) = .0918

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A65. Solution to the Example (continued) b. Boom: E[Rp] = __ (.14) + .15(.15) + .70(.33) = ____ Bust: E[Rp] = .15(.12) + .15(.03) + .70(-.06) = ____ E[Rp] = .35(____) + .65(____) = ____ so 2p = .35(____ - ____)2 + .65(____ - ____)2 = _____

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A66. Solution to the Example (concluded) b. Boom: E[Rp] = .15(.14) + .15(.15) + .70(.33) = .2745 Bust: E[Rp] = .15(.12) + .15(.03) + .70(-.06) = -.0195 E[Rp] = .35(.2745) + .65(-.0195) = .0834 so 2p = .35(.2745 - .0834)2 + .65(-.0195 - .0834)2 = .01278 + .00688 = .01966

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A67. Another Example Using information from capital market history, determine the return on a portfolio that was equally invested in large-company stocks and long-term government bonds. What was the return on a portfolio that was equally invested in small company stocks and Treasury bills?

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A68. Solution to the Example Solution The average annual return on common stocks over the period 1926-1998 was 13.2 percent, and the average annual return on long-term government bonds was 5.7 percent. So, the return on a portfolio with half invested in common stocks and half in long-term government bonds would have been: E[Rp1] = .50(13.2) + .50(5.7) = 9.45%