🗊Презентация System analysis and decision making

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SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DECISION MAKING REASONS
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SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DECISION MAKING REASONS

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The notion of a reason is embedded in at least three other notions, and the four can only be understood together as a family. The other notions are ‘why’, ‘because’, and ‘explanation’. Stating a reason is typically giving an explanation or part of an explanation. Explanations are given in answer to the question ‘Why?’ and a form that is appropriate for the giving of a reason is ‘Because’.
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The notion of a reason is embedded in at least three other notions, and the four can only be understood together as a family. The other notions are ‘why’, ‘because’, and ‘explanation’. Stating a reason is typically giving an explanation or part of an explanation. Explanations are given in answer to the question ‘Why?’ and a form that is appropriate for the giving of a reason is ‘Because’.

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The syntax of both ‘Why?’ questions and ‘Because’ answers, when fully spelled out, always requires an entire clause and not just a noun phrase. This syntactical observation suggests two semantic consequences. First the specification of both explanans and explanandum must have an entire propositional content, and second, there must be something outside the statement corresponding to that content.
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The syntax of both ‘Why?’ questions and ‘Because’ answers, when fully spelled out, always requires an entire clause and not just a noun phrase. This syntactical observation suggests two semantic consequences. First the specification of both explanans and explanandum must have an entire propositional content, and second, there must be something outside the statement corresponding to that content.

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Reason-statements are statements, and hence linguistic entities, speech acts with certain sorts of propositional contents; but reasons themselves and the things they are reasons for are not typically linguistic entities.
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Reason-statements are statements, and hence linguistic entities, speech acts with certain sorts of propositional contents; but reasons themselves and the things they are reasons for are not typically linguistic entities.

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Reasons, then, are what reason-statements are true in virtue of – and there is ‘a general term to describe those features of the world that make statement or clauses true, or in virtue of which they are true, and that term is “fact” ’.
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Reasons, then, are what reason-statements are true in virtue of – and there is ‘a general term to describe those features of the world that make statement or clauses true, or in virtue of which they are true, and that term is “fact” ’.

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Action-explanations themselves show that one cannot maintain that all reasons are facts, since when the agent has false beliefs one cannot cite facts about the world to explain what he does. In those cases, one has to cite the belief itself as the reason. This, according to Searle, can still be accommodated within the general schema, since beliefs, like facts, have, he thinks, a propositional structure.
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Action-explanations themselves show that one cannot maintain that all reasons are facts, since when the agent has false beliefs one cannot cite facts about the world to explain what he does. In those cases, one has to cite the belief itself as the reason. This, according to Searle, can still be accommodated within the general schema, since beliefs, like facts, have, he thinks, a propositional structure.

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‘The formal constraint on being a reason is that an entity must have a propositional structure and must correspond to a reason statement’.. (Rationality in Action, 103)
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‘The formal constraint on being a reason is that an entity must have a propositional structure and must correspond to a reason statement’.. (Rationality in Action, 103)

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To the question, “Why is it the case that p?” the answer, “Because it is the case that q” gives the reason why p, if q really explains, or partly explains p.
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To the question, “Why is it the case that p?” the answer, “Because it is the case that q” gives the reason why p, if q really explains, or partly explains p.

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That is the reason why all reasons are reasons why.
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That is the reason why all reasons are reasons why.

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Williams and Searle: reasons for action are themselves explanations, but this is clearly not the only way to allow such reasons to play a role in explanations.
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Williams and Searle: reasons for action are themselves explanations, but this is clearly not the only way to allow such reasons to play a role in explanations.

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Williams placed a condition on something’s being a reason for action that it should be able to ‘figure’ in an explanation of action – and that condition is uncontroversial precisely because it is so vague. Internal and External Reasons’, in his Moral Luck (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 101–13, 102.
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Williams placed a condition on something’s being a reason for action that it should be able to ‘figure’ in an explanation of action – and that condition is uncontroversial precisely because it is so vague. Internal and External Reasons’, in his Moral Luck (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 101–13, 102.

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For one can certainly accept that it is a condition on taking one event to be a cause of another that the first should be able to figure in the explanation of the occurrence of its effect – one cannot have a causal explanation that does not make manifest to some degree the cause of what is explained – but clearly one should not be led from this to the thought that the cause will itself be the explanation of its effect:
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For one can certainly accept that it is a condition on taking one event to be a cause of another that the first should be able to figure in the explanation of the occurrence of its effect – one cannot have a causal explanation that does not make manifest to some degree the cause of what is explained – but clearly one should not be led from this to the thought that the cause will itself be the explanation of its effect:

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to use a slightly old-fashioned jargon, causation is a ‘natural’ relation that holds between events (or if one prefers between states or objects), whilst explanation is a ‘rational’ relation that holds between facts. P.F. Strawson, ‘Causation and Explanation’, in B. Vermazen and M.B. Hintikka (eds), Essays on Davidson: Actions and Events (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 115–36, 115.
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to use a slightly old-fashioned jargon, causation is a ‘natural’ relation that holds between events (or if one prefers between states or objects), whilst explanation is a ‘rational’ relation that holds between facts. P.F. Strawson, ‘Causation and Explanation’, in B. Vermazen and M.B. Hintikka (eds), Essays on Davidson: Actions and Events (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 115–36, 115.

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Cheng, P.W., and Holyoak, K. J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 391–416.
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Cheng, P.W., and Holyoak, K. J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 391–416.

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One of its central rules is that in case of ‘contradictory’ distinguishing characteristics A and B (e.g., ‘wet’ and ‘dry’), a given entity can only have one or the other characteristic (the ‘law’ of identity), but not both. Higher stages of reflection among other things may lead to recognising the limits of applicability of that ‘law’ and similar ‘laws’.
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One of its central rules is that in case of ‘contradictory’ distinguishing characteristics A and B (e.g., ‘wet’ and ‘dry’), a given entity can only have one or the other characteristic (the ‘law’ of identity), but not both. Higher stages of reflection among other things may lead to recognising the limits of applicability of that ‘law’ and similar ‘laws’.

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An adequate theory will finally have to include elements from each of these perspectives (a) that development in this area builds on some innate or early people-reading capacities, (b) that we have some introspective ability that we can and do exploit when trying to infer the mental states of other creatures...
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An adequate theory will finally have to include elements from each of these perspectives (a) that development in this area builds on some innate or early people-reading capacities, (b) that we have some introspective ability that we can and do exploit when trying to infer the mental states of other creatures...

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