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Plant Cells

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Overview of Plant Structure Plants are Earth’s Primary Producers Harvest Energy from sunlight by converting light energy into chemical energy They store this Chemical Energy in bonds formed when the synthesize Carbohydrates from Carbon Dioxide and Water. Non- motile Have evolved to grow towards resources throughout their life span.

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Overview of Plant Structure The vegetative body consists of: Leaf: Photosynthesis Stem: Support Roots: anchorage and absorption of water & minerals. Nodes: leaf attached to stem. Internode: Region of stem between two nodes

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The leaf

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The stem

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The Root

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Overview of Plant Structure Two general types of plants: Angiosperms: More advanced type of plant About 250,000 species known Major innovation is the Flower So these are also known as flowing plants! Gymnosperms: Less advanced than angiosperms About 700 species known Largest group is the conifer (cone bearer) ie, pine, fir, spruce, and redwood

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Overview of Plant Structure Xylem: Main water-conducting tissue of vascular plants. arise from individual cylindrical cells oriented end to end. At maturity the end walls of these cells dissolve away and the cytoplasmic contents die. The result is the xylem vessel, a continuous nonliving duct. carry water and some dissolved solutes, such as inorganic ions, up the plant

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Overview of Plant Structure

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The Plant Cell

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The Plant Cell All plant cells have the same basic eukaryotic organization However, at maturity when they become specialized, plant cells may differ greatly from one another in their structures and functions Even those physically next to each other. Even the nucleus can be lost in some plant cells Contains many organelles with specific functions Enclosed by a membrane which defines their boundaries Don’t Forget the Cell Wall!!!!!!!!!!

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The Plasma Membrane Composed of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins. The phospholipid sets up the bilayer structure Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and fatty acid tails. The plasma membrane is fluid--that is proteins move in a fluid lipid background

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The Plasma Membrane Phospholipids: Two fatty acids covalently linked to a glycerol, which is linked to a phosphate. All attached to a “head group”, such as choline, an amino acid. Head group POLAR – so hydrophilic (loves water) Tail is non-polar -hydrophobic The tail varies in length from 14 to 28 carbons.

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The Plasma Membrane Proteins: Integral proteins: Embedded in lipid bylayer – serve as “ion pumps” They pump ions across the membrane against their concentration gradient Peripheral proteins: Bound to membrane surface by ionic bonds. Interact with components of the cytoskeleton Anchored proteins: Bound to surface via lipid molecules

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The nucleus Contains almost all of the genetic material What it contains is called the nuclear genome – this varies greatly between plant species. Surrounded by nuclear envelope- double membrane - same as the plasma membrane. The nuclear pores allow for the passage of macromolecules and ribosomal subunits in and out of the nucleus.

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The Endoplasmic reticulum Connected to the nuclear envelope 3D-network of continuous tubules that course through the cytoplasm. Rough ER: Synthesize, process, and sort proteins targeted to membranes, vacuoles, or the secretory pathway. Smooth ER: Synthesize lipids and oils. Also: Acts as an anchor points for actin filaments Controls cytosolic concentrations of calcium ions

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The Endoplasmic reticulum Proteins are made in the Rough ER lumen by an attached ribosome. Protein detaches from the ribosome The ER folds in on itself to form a transport vesicle This transport vesicle “buds off” and moves to the cytoplasm Either: Fuses with plasma membrane Fuses with Golgi Apparatus

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The Golgi Network Proteins or lipids made in the ER contained in transport vesicles fuse with the Golgi. The Golgi modifies proteins and lipids from the ER, sorts them and packages them into transport vesicles. This transport vesicle “buds off” and moves to the cytoplasm. Fuse with plasma membrane.

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The Golgi Network

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The Mitochondria Contain their own DNA and protein-synthesizing machinery Ribosomes, transfer RNAs, nucleotides. Thought to have evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. Divide by fusion The DNA is in the form of circular chromosomes, like bacteria DNA replication is independent from DNA replication in the nucleus

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The Mitochondria Site of Cellular Respiration This process requires oxygen. Composed of three stages: Glycolysis--glucose splitting, occurs in the cell. Glucose is converted to Pyruvate. Krebs cycle--Electrons are removed--carriers are charged and CO2 is produced. This occurs in the mitochondrion. Electron transport--electrons are transferred to oxygen. This produces H2O and ATP. Occurs in the mito.

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The Chloroplast Contain their own DNA and protein-synthesizing machinery Ribosomes, transfer RNAs, nucleotides. Thought to have evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. Divide by fusion The DNA is in the form of circular chromosomes, like bacteria DNA replication is independent from DNA replication in the nucleus

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The Chloroplast Membranes contain chlophyll and it’s associated proteins Site of photosynthesis Have inner & outer membranes 3rd membrane system Thylakoids Stack of Thylakoids = Granum Surrounded by Stroma Works like mitochondria During photosynthesis, ATP from stroma provide the energy for the production of sugar molecules

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The Vacuole Can be 80 – 90% of the plant cell Contained within a vacuolar membrane (Tonoplast) Contains: Water, inorganic ions, organic acids, sugars, enzymes, and secondary metabolites. Required for plant cell enlargement The turgor pressure generated by vacuoles provides the structural rigidity needed to keep herbaceous plants upright.

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The cytoskeleton Three main components: Microtubules: are  and  proteins that create scaffolding in a cell. MTs are formed from the protein tubulin. 13 rows of tubulin =1 microtubule Microfilaments: solid (7 nm) made from G-actin protein. Consists of 2 chains of actin subunits that intertwine in a helical fashion

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The cytoskeleton Intermediate filaments: a diverse group of helically wound linear proteins. Dimers line up parallel to each other These form anti-parallel Tetramers These join together to form a filament

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The cytoskeleton All these elements can assemble and disassemble Involved in plant cell division During mitosis Process of division that produces two daughter cells with identical chromosomal content of parent cell

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Plamodesmarta Each contains a tube called a Desmotubule, which is part of the ER. This is what connects adjacent cell and allow chemical communication and transport of material throughout the whole plant. The restriction acts to control the size of the molecules which pass through.

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The Plant Cell wall Cell walls are held together by the middle Lamella. Made up of: Cellulose Xyloglucan Pectin Proteins Ca ions Lignin other ions Water

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Replication of DNA

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Composed of 4 nucleotide bases, 5 carbon sugar and phosphate. Composed of 4 nucleotide bases, 5 carbon sugar and phosphate. Base pair = rungs of a ladder. Edges = sugar-phosphate backbone. Double Helix Anti-Parallel

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The bases Chargaff’s Rules A=T G=C led to suggestion of a double helix structure for DNA

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The Bases Adenine (A) always base pairs with thymine (T) Guanine (G) always base pairs with Cytosine (C)

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The Bases The C#T pairing on the left suffers from carbonyl dipole repulsion, as well as steric crowding of the oxygens. The G#A pairing on the right is also destabilized by steric crowding (circled hydrogens).

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DNA Replication Adenine (A) always base pairs with thymine (T) Guanine (G) always base pairs with Cytosine (C) ALL Down to HYDROGEN Bonding Requires steps: H bonds break as enzymes unwind molecule New nucleotides (always in nucleus) fit into place beside old strand in a process called Complementary Base Pairing. New nucleotides joined together by enzyme called DNA Polymerase

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DNA Replication Each new double helix is composed of an old (parental) strand and a new (daughter) strand. As each strand acts as a template, process is called Semi-conservative Replication. Replication errors can occur. Cell has repair enzymes that usually fix problem. An error that persists is a mutation. This is permanent, and alters the phenotype.

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Protein synthesis in Plants

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Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

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Summary of protein synthesis Proteins: Chains of Amino Acids Three nucleotide base pairs code for one amino acid. Proteins are formed from RNA The nucleotide code must be translated into an amino acid code.

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Occurs in the cytoplasm or on Rough ER

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RNA Formed from 4 nucleotides, 5 carbon sugar, phosphate. Uracil is used in RNA. It replaces Thymine The 5 carbon sugar has an extra oxygen. RNA is single stranded.

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Translation Translation requires: Amino acids Transfer RNA: (tRNA) Appropriate to its time, transfers AAs to ribosomes. The AA’s join in cytoplasm to form proteins. 20 types. Loop structure Ribosomal RNA: (rRNA) Joins with proteins made in cytoplasm to form the subunits of ribosomes. Linear molecule. Messenger RNA: (mRNA) Carries genetic material from DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm. Linear molecule.

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Translation Initiation— mRNA binds to smaller of ribosome subunits, then, small subunit binds to big subunit. AUG start codon--complex assembles Elongation— add AAs one at a time to form chain. Incoming tRNA receives AA’s from outgoing tRNA. Ribosome moves to allow this to continue Termintion— Stop codon--complex falls apart

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Cell Division in Plants

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Most plant cells divide by Mitosis Mitosis: Process of division that produces two daughter cells with identical chromosomal content of parent cell. Mitosis is one stage of the cell cycle. Cell cycle--cycle of stages a cell goes through in order to grow and divide.

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Stages of Division Prophase--nuclear envelope breakdown, chromosome condensation, spindle formation. Metaphase--chromosomes are lined up precisely on the metaphase plate, or middle of the cell. Anaphase--spindle pulls sister chromatids apart. Telophase--chromatids begin to decondense and become chromatin. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis--divide cell and organelles. Actin ring, or cleavage furrow splits cell.

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Prophase--nuclear envelope breakdown, chromosome condensation, spindle formation. Prophase--nuclear envelope breakdown, chromosome condensation, spindle formation. Metaphase--chromosomes are lined up precisely on the metaphase plate, or middle of the cell.

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Anaphase--spindle pulls sister chromatids apart. Anaphase--spindle pulls sister chromatids apart. Telophase--chromatids begin to decondense and become chromatin. Spindle disappears. NEW CELL WALL IS FORMED Cytokinesis--divide cell and organelles. Actin ring, or cleavage furrow splits cell.

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Remember the cytoskeleton? Changes in microtubule arrangements (yellow) during different stages of the cell cycle of wheat root cells. DNA is shown in blue.